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Facilitating Ownership in Social-Emotional Learning: Grade 3 Girls’ Co-Created Mindful Routines Foster Self-Regulation and Resiliency SkillsAnnMarie Zigrossi (2023) 2023This action research project explores how 7-8 year-old girls co-created mindful routines as a strategy to foster self-regulation and resiliency. This research was conducted with a group of 14 Grade 3 students at an all-girls independent school in Toronto, Canada. The project examined how students could more independently access taught mindfulness strategies when faced with challenges throughout their day. While most research in this area focuses on the beneficial outcomes of participating in mindfulness practices and the long-term positive effects on academics and social interactions, there is less information on how students can more independently access these practices in their daily lives. In this project, the girls created a well-structured mindful routine that they practised each morning and had access to throughout their day. Students exhibited a sense of ownership in creating their unique mindful routine, which led to high levels of engagement and autonomy. The students used critical thinking skills to research various mindful practices and experimented, tested, and self-reflected to discern the practices that best suited them. Data were collected while the girls participated in their individual mindful routine each morning over a six-week period. Data collected were qualitative in nature and captured by questionnaires, interviews, observations and student journals. The results indicated that the students independently accessed this tool to support them through regular daily challenges, such as working through feeling frustrated or overwhelmed, resolving conflicts with peers at recess, and managing anxiety at competitive sporting events. The girls articulated the positive impact of using their mindful routine and how they plan to use this tool in the future. These mindful routines were used as a tool for self-regulation and demonstrated the development of resiliency skills that students can access throughout their lives to enhance their well-being. Facilitating young students’ creation of mindful routines to develop these skills and recognize their immediate positive impact will be key in the school’s future planning of Social-Emotional Learning (SEL). By AnnMarie Zigrossi -
Feedback Conversations to Motivate Adolescent Girls’ Learning: Using Conversations to Progress Learning, Resilience, and ConfidenceKaren Lewis (2020) 2020There is often a disconnect between the feedback teachers give and their students’ willingness or ability to apply that feedback to their own writing. Teachers understand, though, that the way they give feedback can impact student confidence and resilience. For girls as social learners who value relationships, some form of dialogue can help to facilitate uptake of feedback and potentially support confidence and resilience. There is not an extensive body of research, however, that explores the experiences of feedback specifically for adolescent girls. In response to this, action research on student engagement with feedback was undertaken in a large all-girls’ school in Brisbane, Australia. A group of thirty-six Year 11 English Literature students engaged in feedback conversations to encourage clarification of feedback and self-evaluation of their work. Feedback conversation transcripts, student surveys, focus group discussions, and student grades were used to find the impact of such conversations on student confidence, uptake of feedback, and improvement to their writing. Those students who engaged with feedback conversations reported feeling positive about their own learning, having improved confidence towards their potential exam performance, being more receptive to feedback, and had an increase in overall grades under exam conditions. Further research on the impact of prolonged use of feedback conversations is warranted, especially related to student confidence, resilience, and writing performance. -
Fostering Engagement in a Year 10 Girls’ Biology Classroom through Development of a Collaborative CultureClaire Saxon (2024) 2024Whilst girls demonstrate a propensity for social learning, classroom collaboration does not always lead to positive outcomes. Working together can lead to dissatisfaction, a reduction in engagement and a reliance on formulaic presentations rather than embracing a love of learning in a Year 10 Biology classroom. Girls at my school have been observed to collaborate effectively in Drama or Physical Education lessons but unable to transfer this skill to Biology. The aim of this action research project was to enable girls to change the perception of success in Biology and gather evidence of any change. This was the inspiration for an examination of re-addressing the balance in a more teacher-led classroom by adapting Ritchhart and Church’s (2020) routines in The power of making thinking visible. Girls in a Year 10 Biology class at Wycombe High School were participants in a study where deliberate routines were planned and delivered in a sequence of Biology lessons to engage students in learning and working together to achieve a common goal. Data were collected as part of a mixed methods approach. Data analysis suggested an increase in feelings of belonging and inclusion. Themes of academic trust, and the ability of students to use and organically apply the skills they learned during the collaborative learning activities were identified. Initial evidence also suggests that anxiety decreased as students were able to build critical relationships and trust with their peers whilst exploring more abstract ideas. The findings also indicate that girls were more likely to participate in robust learning conversations after the action. The intended outcomes served to challenge the apparent predominant pedagogy in different contexts which had been observed in a high-achieving, single-sex girls’ school and to foster a collaborative culture in areas where this is not usually expected. To develop this study further, there is a need to explore the relationship between collaboration, academic trust, and metacognition. -
Fostering Grade 9 Girls’ Sense of Belonging Through the Use of Collaborative Lab Practicums as Authentic Assessments in ScienceAruna Chavali (2024) 2024In 2023, the gender gap in STEM remains significant, with women making up only 28% of the STEM workforce (UNESCO, 2023). Research suggests that fostering a sense of belonging in secondary Science classes is an effective strategy for increasing and sustaining the participation of girls in the STEM pipeline (Hansen,2023). The three guiding principles for a student to have a sense of academic belonging are interpersonal relationships, disciple identity, and a growth mindset (CELT Teaching Briefs). This action research project investigated how collaborative lab practicums, as authentic assessments, cultivated discipline identity, and promoted a growth mindset, to foster a sense of belonging for girls in a Grade 9 Physics classroom. The research, conducted at The Spence School, an all-girls K-12 institution, employed a mixed-methods approach, combining Likert-scale surveys, field observations, video recordings, and interviews. Twenty-nine Grade 9 students participated in this study. Findings indicate that collaborative lab practicums deepened students' understanding, and promoted collaborative learning. Students valued the hands-on, real-world application of theoretical knowledge, which facilitates a deeper connection to science. Additionally, the collaborative nature of the assessments encouraged teamwork and enhanced communication skills. The majority of students exhibited a growth mindset, emphasizing the importance of redoing and revising calculations as part of the learning process. While challenges, such as the fast-paced nature of practicums, were noted, overall, students expressed a preference for this collaborative, authentic learning approach. This study contributes valuable insights into fostering a positive sense of belonging in the Science classroom which could ultimately increase the participation of girls in the STEM pipeline. -
Fostering Resilience Through Quality Feedback in One-on-One MentoringNúria Tapias Nadales (2020) 2020La Vall is a girls’ school located in Bellaterra (near Barcelona) with approximately 1,500 students between 1 and 18 years old, and belonging to Institució Familiar d'Educació , an educational institution with 13 schools in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands. The school’s main objective is to offer a personalized education model, based on the five dimensions of the person (physical, affective, social, rational, transcendental) that are described in the Integral Human Development theory. This study aimed to explore through surveys, interviews, and self-reflection how feedback in one-on-one mentoring is beneficial to secondary female students’ (13-16 years old) personal and academic progress, considering the five dimensions of the person mentioned above, and how appropriate feedback may enhance self-confidence and growth, and thus resilience. The outcomes of this action research suggest mentoring is an effective tool in resilience development when there is a trusting relationship between student and mentor, and when goals and action plans are student-initiated. Adequate training and time allocation seem necessary tools to ensure effective mentoring that promotes the development of protective factors that result in resilience and balanced growth. -
From AI Consumption to Co-Thinking: How Structured Evaluation Enhances Year 9 Girls’ Critical Thinking in Science InquiryJo Oreo 2026This action research examines how structured evaluation of AI-generated outputs shapes girls’ critical thinking. This study was motivated by concerns that generative artificial intelligence (GAI) may encourage surface-level learning and cognitive offloading when girls use it primarily for quick responses, particularly in the absence of explicit scaffolding for critical and ethical engagement. A purpose-designed co-thinking framework was implemented within a Year 9 Science inquiry unit in an independent girls’ school to support girls to “co-think” with AI while maintaining ownership of their ideas. Data from student portfolios, surveys, classroom observations, and interviews indicated a shift from using AI for quick answers toward more deliberate co-thinking, with greater attention to accuracy, bias, and limitations, alongside increased cross-checking, prompt revision, and clearer differentiation between students’ ideas and AI contributions. Overall, the findings indicate that the impact of GAI depends less on the technology itself and more on pedagogical design. When evaluation is explicitly scaffolded, students engage more critically with AI, using it to test and refine ideas rather than accept outputs at face value. Student feedback from this research informed the refinement of this framework, now supporting broader whole-school approaches to critical thinking and ethical engagement with GAI. -
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From Automation to Agency: Using AI to Strengthen Year 12 Girls’ Critical ThinkingTina Huang 2026As generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools become increasingly accessible, the need for students to critically evaluate and interpret automated feedback has become more pressing than ever. Furthermore, concerns have emerged regarding students’ tendency to engage with AI passively or treat its outputs as authoritative. This action research study investigated whether structured engagement with AI-generated feedback could strengthen evaluative critical thinking skills in Year 12 English students within a private all-girls school context in Brisbane, Australia. In response to growing concerns, this study implemented a structured framework in which a class of 23 girls were explicitly taught how to critique, reflect, and selectively apply AI-generated feedback to their own essay writing. Scaffolded reflective checkpoints and peer dialogue were embedded to support the development of evaluative judgement and independent learning. Data collection techniques included written student reflections, questionnaire responses, focus groups, interview clips and transcripts and lesson observations. Thematic analysis was used to interpret the data, with findings indicating that students demonstrated increased evaluative awareness, greater intentionality in their use of AI, and strengthened confidence in their own academic judgement. These findings are valuable for educators navigating AI integration in secondary classrooms and warrant further investigation, particularly in exploring the long-term development of evaluative judgement across year levels. -
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Fundraising and Alumnae Relations in Australasian Girls’ SchoolsAskRight 2023This is the fourth survey by fundraising consultants, AskRight, on the important areas of philanthropy, fundraising and community relations in girls’ schools. The survey was completed by girls’ schools in Australia and New Zealand in 2023 based on their school’s 2022 activities. -
Gender atypical subject selection(2024) 2024In Dame Athene Donald's inaugural address as President of the British Science Association in 2015 she stated that " the problems of how we introduce gender stereotyping for our children start incredibly early ". She asks, if girls "have never had the opportunity to take things to pieces and build them up again; if they have always just played with dolls .... in a stereotypically female situation such as worrying about hair style or making tea, then how can they imagine themselves as engineers or chemists?" Dame Donald, Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge University, says that she is "astonished by how many people tell me a girl they know has been told that maths isn't for them, or that girls are no good at maths or even that they do maths like a boy". She believes that even though girls' exam results in maths and physics are as good if not better than boys, these negative messages "sink in subliminally" and girls are discouraged from pursuing maths and science as careers. Professor Donald's comments are backed up by recent research in this area. • Justman and Méndez (2018, abstract) examined data for Victorian students, finding that there is gendered streaming of STEM subjects in secondary schools, with boys more likely to take physics, information technology and advanced mathematics and girls more likely to take life sciences like biology, but that there is “significantly less gender streaming in STEM subjects among female students in all-girls schools than in co-educational schools” . Girls in Australian single-sex schools are more likely than girls in co-educational schools to take physics, advanced maths and chemistry (p. 290). • A 2018 German study has found that single-sex programs in computer science and mechanical engineering held since 2001 have led to a decrease in the number of female students dropping out of STEM disciplines at German universities. As a result, these programs have helped lead to an increase in the number of females in traditionally male-dominated STEM fields (Busolt, Ludewig & Schmidt, 2018, p. 251). • A 2017 Taiwanese study has found that single-sex schools are advantageous for women’s pursuit of careers in the technology fields . Twenty of the 28 research participants were from single-sex schools. In single-sex schools, participants reported less gender stereotyping and discrimination which enabled them the freedom to choose subjects that were not stereotypically for women. Single-sex schools were reported to provide girls with female role models who further encouraged their involvement in technology. Many participants reported feeling encouraged or inspired by their female teachers. This led the author to suggest that gender discrimination and stereotyping can threatens girls’ potentiality in technology (Wang, 2017, pp. 156-157). • A 2015 study by Kester Lee and Judy Anderson from the University of Sydney found that girls in single-sex schools have the most positive attitudes to maths and girls in co-educational schools have the least positive attitudes (p. 357). In fact, girls in single-sex schools were the most positive of all students, followed by boys in single-sex schools, then co-educational boys and finally co-educational girls (p. 361). Lee and Anderson concluded that, for girls, “single-sex settings resulted in much more favourable attitudes towards mathematics than those in coeducational settings” (p. 363). • Similarly, a 2016 report by Dr Chris Ryan of the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research confirms that, by Year 8, girls in single-sex schools are more likely to enjoy and be confident in maths than girls in co-educational schools. Ryan concluded that "boys tend to favour mathematics in terms of their confidence and how much they value the subject, while girls' attitudes to science are relatively stronger". However: "The exception to this statement is that girls in single-sex schools have stronger attitudes towards mathematics than science compared with boys, unlike in co-educational schools" (p. 23). • Gandara and Silva (2015, pp. 7, 11) found that despite equal numbers of female and male high school students in Chile sitting the biology, chemistry and physics pre-admission tests for entry into science-based university degrees, and despite female students achieving a higher Grade Point Average (GPA) at high school than male students, on average males outperformed female students in the three science admission tests, even after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES) and school type. They also found that girls attending single-sex schools in Chile were more likely to sit the chemistry and physics tests than girls from co-ed schools (pp. 7-8) and that they achieved higher scores that their co-ed counterparts on all three tests (biology, chemistry and physics) (p. 11). • A 2015 report by the Institute of Physics (UK) found that co-ed schools need to do more to tackle sexist banter and attitudes that discourage
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Gender bias in Australia’s senior science curriculumRoss et al. (2023) 2023Australian researchers have considered the challenge of engaging girls in STEM by analysing the role of gender bias in four senior secondary Australian science courses. The under-representation of girls and women in STEM is a well-recognised issue. Girls’ school educators regularly find themselves on the frontline of this issue as they implement initiatives and opportunities to combat the negative effect of gender interest stereotypes and a lack of positive female role models (Alliance of Girls Schools Australasia [AGSA], 2022a; 2022b; 2022c; Australian Government Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2022). The researchers who developed this paper have discussed some possible interventions to reduce gender bias in Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Science and Physics classes and improve engagement rates for girls. This provides useful strategies that can be considered when delivering STEM content in girls’ schools. The authors assessed the latest curriculum offered for senior secondary science courses across Australia. Only courses that were “common across all curricula and [were] part of the Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR)” were included (Ross et al., 2023, p. 4). Ross et al. (2023) considered the representation of women both through mentions of scientist names and mentions of scientific concepts (and how these were linked to gender). The project also considered the presence of a Eurocentric focus in the courses, although this was considered separately to the presence of gender bias. The initial outcomes of this research were interesting, if not unsurprising given the gender bias present more broadly in STEM. In the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia curricula there were no female scientists mentioned (Ross et al., 2023, p. 7). Only 1.4 percent of mentions in the Queensland curriculum were female scientists, and 1.5 percent in the South Australia/Northern Territory courses (these were considered in combination as both use the same curriculum content) (Ross et al., 2023, p. 7). A national trend across all curricula was clear that in the majority of cases, students were exposed to scientists in these courses “via relevant discovering being named after the scientist who discovered them” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). This is problematic given that these naming conventions historically excluded women, and female achievements were regularly miscredited to men (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). This has created a narrative of a “lone male genius” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). The researchers have suggested that this can reduce girls’ ability to perceive where they may fit in scientific fields and can decrease their performance in the classroom (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). The concept of the “lone male genius” is highly problematic. There have been attempts to improve this approach in these courses by encouraging students to “investigate the ‘multiple individuals’ who contributed to a specific scientific discovery” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 14). While this can inadvertently minimise the work of women in STEM, it nonetheless provides educators with an opportunity to include a focus on significant female achievements in the field. It can also encourage a “student-driven approach to investigating the contributing scientists” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 14). Importantly, the authors note that while some Australian states are making an effort to shift away from this narrative, New South Wales “is the only state that actively reinforces this ‘lone male genius’ narrative” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 14). This holds significant implications for girls well beyond a presence of female scientists in the curricula of senior science courses. The researchers’ consideration of Eurocentrism within the curricula also highlighted further implications for girls who do not identify with Anglo-Australian backgrounds. The absence of scientists from culturally and linguistically diverse communities and female scientists in these courses “poses a significant hindrance” to girls including those with diverse backgrounds (Ross et al., 2023, p. 15). It can also inhibit their ability to develop a relatability towards positive role models. The researchers who developed this review of senior science courses have discussed a range of strategies. This includes the need to ensure significant female figures are actively integrated into the curricula for these courses. Ross et al. (2023) do note that including the names of female scientists alone is not a complete solution, as this would be a tokenistic measure. It would not address the true gender bias present in the curricula for these courses. The authors also believe that the barriers faced by female scientists should be studied so that girls can be fully aware of the significance of their achievements. Their research suggests that “without the historical and contextual backgrounds of women in STEM, it runs the risk of [once again] becoming
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Gender differences in early childhood mathematics: boys’ and girls’ responses to changing pattern task difficultyIris Schreiber (2025) 2025The study by Iris Schreiber (2025) investigates gender differences in how kindergarten children solve repeating pattern tasks, particularly when task difficulty increases through the inclusion of surplus shapes and colors. Conducted with 206 Israeli children aged 4–6, the research found no gender differences when only necessary items were provided—both boys and girls performed equally well. However, when surplus items were added, performance declined overall, with girls outperforming boys. Girls were more likely to solve the tasks correctly or declare the task unsolvable, while boys more often produced random or alternate repeating patterns. These findings suggest that girls may be more adept at filtering out irrelevant information or more cautious in uncertain situations, possibly due to lower self-confidence in math tasks. Conversely, boys appeared more easily distracted by extraneous elements and were more prone to guessing. The study emphasizes the importance of teaching strategies that foster pattern recognition and generalization, rather than procedural repetition, and advocates for differentiated instructional approaches that support both genders in early math learning. -
Gender Essentialism Leads to Biased Learning Opportunities That Shape Women’s Career InterestsKatherine R. Christensen, Andrei Cimpian, Sapna Cheryan (2025) 2025This study examines how beliefs about innate gender differences—known as gender essentialism—can unintentionally shape women’s career interests by influencing the learning opportunities they receive. Across three experiments, the researchers found that when people assume gender differences are biological, they are more likely to assign women and men stereotypical tasks (e.g., women to empathizing roles, men to systemizing roles). Over time, these biased experiences reinforce traditional gendered career interests, even when the original intentions were neutral. The findings highlight how subtle beliefs about gender can limit agency and opportunity, and suggest that fostering a more contextual understanding of gender differences is key to supporting equitable career pathways for all students. Reference Christensen, K. R., Cimpian, A., & Cheryan, S. (2025). Gender essentialism leads to biased learning opportunities that shape women’s career interests. Psychological Science , 36(7), 1195–1209. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976251353753 -
Gender norms and traditional cultural understandings: Gender in the early childhood classroomGelir (2022) 2022The question of gender within the early childhood education space is one of topical importance for girls’ schools in Australia (Chapman, 2022). Australia also has an increasingly and rapidly growing body of ethnically diverse families and students, including ethnic minorities, voluntary migrants and refugees (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021; Australian Human Right Commission; 2014). As the author of the article notes, this research raises a number of considerations surrounding traditional gender norms, ethnic minorities and language. While the case study may have been based in a minority community in Turkey that has been subject to conflict, it does reveal the need for ongoing sensitivity to students’ ethnic backgrounds and cultural beliefs. This is particularly so in situations where ethnicity, language or other cultural beliefs do not receive formal recognition, and further highlights the ongoing impact this can have on children and families even after many years of resettlement in Australia (Stroja, 2022). The article by Iksender Gelir from the Preschool Education Department at Siirt University, Turkey, considers how Kurdish preschool children construct gender roles by drawing on household and community knowledge. Gelir’s main finding is that “children position their gender roles according to the values and expectations of their minority community” (2022, p. 302). The author identifies the development of gender roles as social constructs, noting that these gender constructs are performative, not biological. Ultimately, Gelir (2022, p. 303) highlighted the recognition that “preschool teachers need to be aware of young children[‘s] gender constructions and to challenge children[‘s] traditional gender roles by expanding definition[s] of gender roles”. The article was based on “participant observations [of two children], audio and video recordings of interactions between the teacher and children in the nursery” (Gelir, 2022, p. 302). Both children were five years of age, and experienced different languages and cultures at home compared to the preschool environment Gelir (2022). The author has based this analysis on Vygotsky’s earlier research that suggested language and the mastering of language affects children’s development of thought and intellectual growth within the context of social context and its impacts on cognition development (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986). This included the assumption that learning is both intrapersonal (i.e. cognitive) and interpersonal (i.e. social). The research for this article was conducted in Turkey, where community environments include ethnic and religious minorities. Participants in the study live in a Kurdish community located in east Turkey, and speak the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish. The preschool was also located in the Kurdish community. This community was typically characterised by mothers undertaking housework, with fathers fulfilling “head of family” roles, and undertaking seasonal worker tasks in various Turkish cities. The region that was the focus of the study also has a higher illiteracy rate than other parts of the city. Preschool is the “first formal level of education” in Turkey, but at the time of writing is not compulsory. Children can be aged between three and five to attend preschool, which has its own dedicated curriculum. The language within preschools is Turkish, as Kurmanji is not an officially recognised language. The teacher of the preschool in the case study identified as Kurdish, and could speak (but not write) Kurmanji. There exists a perception that children of identified minority groups have a “lack of knowledge”, however, children within this demographic can indeed possess important knowledge that can facilitate learning (Gelir, 2022, p. 303). In fact, their home environments can be rich in terms of knowledge. This is important because children can transfer aspects of the home to the classroom, and the classroom to the home. This means educators need to consider the experiences of children outside of the school environment as an inherent part of the learning process. In particular, this includes a consideration of what this can contribute to the child’s experience in the classroom environment, and how their “household” knowledge is reflected within the classroom (Gelir, 2022, p. 303). The author particularly noted in the article that children can draw on their home environment to construct gender roles, but can also draw on language as part of this process. This reflects the understanding that cultural resources and household environments can “contribute to traditional gender constructions” (Gelir, 2022, p. 303). It is an “inclusive pedagogical approach” to allow students to draw on their pre-existing knowledge in learning environments, however, this simultaneously highlights the need for teachers to be aware that children’s prior experience can influence their understanding of gender constructs. In particular, Gelir (2022) observed that t
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Girls prefer single-sex PE classes & sporting activities(2024) 2024Researchers have found that mixed-sex sporting activities at school reinforce existing gender stereotypes that boys are 'better' at sport, leading to girls being discouraged from taking part. In addition, especially during adolescence when girls are highly conscious of body image and weight, they are reluctant to wear physical education (PE) uniforms or take part in PE classes and sporting activities with boys. Unsurprisingly, multiple studies find that girls prefer female-only PE classes, sports, fitness activities and outdoor education. • Mission Australia's large-scale annual survey of young people aged 15-19 revealed that students at girls’ schools obtained higher scores than the female average in the key area of physical and mental health, even during the pandemic year of 2020. More girls attending single-sex schools in 2020 reported participating in sport over the past year than the average female (75% vs 68.6%) (Mission Australia, 2020). • A study of the gendered nature of mixed-sex sailing programs for school students aged 14-18 in France and the United States concluded that “young men were viewed as being more legitimate participants and regularly took up the role of lead skipper — young women were considered secondary participants and were typically positioned as crew members” (Schmitt, Atencio & Sempé, 2020, pp. 1-2). Boys taking part in the study believed that girls were “less capable sailors” and “tried to intimidate the girls during races” (p. 9). This is consistent with previous studies which found that school sport “privileges males and often devalues female participants ” (p. 2). • A 2020 Scottish study has found that girls spend significantly more time undertaking moderate to vigorous physical activity in single-gender PE lessons. In addition, most girls enjoy and prefer single-gender Physical Education (PE) lessons for games such as basketball. The study authors suggest that segregating PE classes for game-based activities could lead to greater health benefits for girls through a higher level of physical activity (Wallace, Buchan & Sculthorpe, 2020, pp. 231). • A 2019 American study has found that PE lessons in co-educational schools “reinforce more sedentary behaviour in girls due to a more male-dominated, traditional, team-sport oriented curriculum that lacks a wide variety of choices” (p. 110). Timken, McNamee and Coste write that international research has demonstrated that co-ed physical activity and PE lessons “have been places rife with dominance, harassment, and intimidation of girls, leading girls to disengage and/or prefer different circumstances” (p. 111). Girls may prefer dance and fitness activities to traditional sports activities because they do not require a team, are non-competitive, can occur any time, and may require less coordination than team sports (p. 110). In addition, multiple studies have found that girls prefer single-gender rather than mixed gender PE classes, with two studies demonstrating that girls who participate in single-gender teams show increased competence, possibly because they perceived less competition and felt more confident about their ability level compared with the other girls (p. 111). • A UK study found that the majority of girls support separating girls and boys for sports activities . There was also stakeholder support for girls’ sports activities to be run by female coordinators who could act as role models (Morgan, Van Godwin, Darwent & Fildes, 2019, pp. 1, 4, 7). The authors’ recommendations include that co-ed schools should introduce female-only physical activity sessions that take place after school and that female role models should be used as facilitators of these activities (pp. 9-12). • Citing a 2014 study, Crystal Vargos writes that co-ed classes have been found to have a “negative effect” on girls’ participation levels in PE for multiple reasons including gender stereotypes, the teacher, the class environment, and the competitive design of PE classes. In addition, “Feelings of embarrassment, lack of confidence and self-efficacy, body image concerns, disinterest in particular activities, and dominance of males in PE” are reasons why females may dislike participating in co-ed PE classes (Vargos, 2017, pp. 1-2, citing Murphy, Diongi & Litchfield, 2014, n.p.). • A 2014 meta-analysis of 22 studies found that the largest increases in sports participation occurred in studies where interventions were based on single-sex activities . In particular, interventions that targeted girls, rather than girls and boys together, had a “higher effect size”. The study authors noted that this effect was not just present in adolescent girls who may be experiencing body image concerns, but also in younger girls. They concluded that “ongoing physical education and other structured physical activity contexts might require greater use of single sex provision” (Biddle, Braithwaite & Pearson, 2014, p. 129). • An American study examining co-
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Girls scared away from science by sexist banter at co-ed schoolsIOP 2015A new report by Britain's Institute of Physics has found that co-educational schools need to do more to tackle sexist banter and attitudes that discourage girls from pursuing careers in science. While the Opening Doors report found that all schools had policies to counter racist, sexist and homophobic language, sexist language was often dismissed as "harmless banter" though "many of the students, particularly girls, did not see it as such" and that "in extreme cases, it verged on bullying". Some of the many important findings of the Opening Doors report include that: Many of the schools were "inadvertently reinforcing the notion that certain subjects were harder than others" and that girls "lack ability" and "innate talent" in certain subjects, and this was "particularly true for girls contemplating mathematics and the physical sciences". Timetabling constraints in many schools reinforced gender stereotypes through offering subjects in blocks that send "a strong message about the types of courses that are taken by boys and girls". "Some schools, mindful of bad behaviour from boys, had policies of alternate boy-girl seating, effectively using the girls as buffers to keep the boys apart. In general the girls noticed and resented this policy." While girls had access to the full range of sporting activities at some schools, in other schools "girls resented being prevented from taking certain sports considered unsuitable for them". In 2012, the Institute of Physics published the It's Different for Girls report which found that 49% of all government co-ed schools did not have a single female student taking A-level physics and that girls attending independent single-sex schools were four times more likely to take A-level physics than girls in government co-ed schools. In fact, 7.2% of girls in single-sex independent schools took A-level physics in 2011 compared with 4.9% of girls in co-ed independent schools, 4.3% of girls in single-sex government schools and 1.8% of girls in co-ed government schools. In 2013 the Institute followed this report with its Closing Doors report examining existing gender imbalances in six A-level subjects which result in girls being more likely to take English, biology and psychology, and boys being more likely to take mathematics, physics and economics. The report found that 81% of government co-educational schools were either "maintaining or exacerbating the already poor gender bias of progression into these subjects". One of the main findings of the report, however, was that "single-sex schools are significantly better than co-educational schools at countering gender imbalances in progression to these six subjects". References Institute of Physics. (2013). Closing doors: Exploring gender and subject choice in schools . Retrieved from: https://www.iop.org/education/teacher/support/girls_physics/closing-doors/page_62076.html Institute of Physics. (2015). Opening doors: A guide to good practice in countering gender stereotyping in schools . Retrieved from: https://www.iop.org/education/teacher/support/girls_physics/reports-and-research/opening-doors/page_66438.html
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Giving the Bird Wings: AI as a Mathematical Coach for Year 8 GirlsSusan Jackson 2026Many studies highlight the importance of fostering mathematical confidence in early adolescence, particularly among girls, who often experience a decline in self-efficacy despite capable performance (Zander et al., 2020). My action research explored how using AI-generated prompts to guide Year 8 girls through the MPTC (Make sense, Plan an approach, Take action, Convince yourself and others) mathematical investigation cycle built confidence in non-routine mathematics challenges. Over 16 weeks, 22 Year 8 students engaged with a custom AI chatbot designed to scaffold their work on non-routine, challenging problems using the MPTC cycle. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study employed Mertler's (2020) inductive analysis to identify patterns in the collected data. I constructed four key themes: refined AI-generated prompts build student trust and confidence; confidence grows when AI provides scaffolds rather than solutions; students internalise the MPTC cycle through repeated guided use; and non-judgmental AI interaction increases confidence and fosters agency. My findings revealed that a carefully designed AI chatbot significantly increased participants' confidence when the tool prioritised conciseness, developmental appropriateness, and step-by-step metacognitive checking. This research demonstrates that AI, designed as a pedagogical coach rather than an answer generator, can empower girls to embrace productive struggle and see themselves as capable mathematicians. Implications for practice include the critical importance of prompt engineering and the potential for AI to build mathematical confidence in early adolescent girls. -
Giving the Bird Wings: AI as a Mathematical Coach for Year 8 GirlsSusan Jackson 2026 -
Glass-Box Feedback: Turning AI Chatbots into Metacognitive Writing Partners for Year 5 GirlsMakiko Ryland 2026Many students approach writing as a task to complete rather than a process of drafting, reflecting and refining ideas. This action research project investigated how AI-generated feedback influenced Year 5 girls’ metacognitive engagement and revision practices in writing within a primary school context in Sydney, Australia. With generative AI increasingly present in classrooms, there is a need to understand whether AI feedback can support revision without replacing students’ thinking. The 10-week intervention involved designing and implementing a custom AI chatbot, Blue Bot. Blue Bot was co-constructed with students through shared success criteria, task-specific rubrics, and clear guardrails to shift AI from a “black box” to a “glass-box” tool. Students engaged in repeated drafting cycles: writing an initial draft, receiving rubric-aligned AI feedback, revising independently, and submitting a second draft for teacher assessment. A mixed-methods approach was used to collect data through student journals, pre- and post-intervention surveys, focus group interviews, chatbot interaction logs, teacher field notes, and rubric-scored writing samples with calculated revision gains. Findings indicate that, when explicitly scaffolded, AI feedback can strengthen evaluative judgement and support deeper revision beyond surface editing. However, the impact of AI feedback varied depending on students’ perceptions of the chatbot, and some learners (including EALD and lower-achieving writers) required additional scaffolding to interpret and apply feedback. The study highlights the importance of transparent design, explicit teaching and “human in the loop” principles to ensure AI supports metacognitive growth and equitable access to revision improvement. -
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History Belongs to Us: Year 9 Girls Use Historical Significance to Craft Their CurriculumHolly Webb 2025This action research study investigated the impact of applying the skill of historical significance to meaningfully involve girls in the creation of their Year 9 history curriculum. A class of 25 girls was given explicit instruction on evaluating historical significance, and the girls were provided with multiple opportunities to evaluate the significance of the historical topics they were currently studying. The project culminated with students producing independently researched proposals for new topics they believed warranted inclusion in the school's Year 9 history curriculum, and also with the History department working with the students to implement some of these changes. Data collection techniques included questionnaires, focus groups, student work samples, and lesson observations. Thematic analysis was used to interpret the data; findings revealed that involvement in the curriculum design process and application of historical significance enhanced student agency and developed girls’ historical skills. Developing the skill of historical significance also enabled girls to distinguish between the agency of a historian and personal preferences, whilst also highlighting that comprehensive historical knowledge is crucial for students to effectively evaluate significance and exercise agency. The findings from this study are valuable for educators wanting to critically reflect on what may be considered canon in their subject or those hoping to involve students in meaningful curricular change. -
Increasing middle school girls’ critical engagement with AI through lightweight workshopsSolyst, J., Axon, A., Stewart, A. B., Eslami, M., & Ogan, A. (2023) 2023With the increasing presence of AI in society it is becoming vital that students understand how to use this technology safely and are aware of its potential benefits, uses, bias, and impact on ethics and privacy. AI is prevalent in everyday life, and girls are highly likely to be exposed to AI regardless of which post-school path they pursue. Researchers from Carnegie Mellon University in the USA have undertaken a project to gain a better understanding of middle school girls’ “perceptions and knowledge gaps about AI” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). By developing a lightweight educational workshop (a workshop less than three hours long), the authors explored girls’ perceptions and approaches to AI with the aim of helping them avoid misinformation, provide them with useful learning materials and “lend insight into a more just future” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). Currently, learning opportunities that are designed “to address children’s knowledge gaps in AI literacy” largely focus on the technical aspects of the technology. This excludes many of the ethical questions associated with AI (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). The researchers who developed this paper were also concerned about the limited understanding “of how girls perceive and learn about AI”, with a risk that this may “potentially [compound] existing inequities in AI representation” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). This project explored a learner-centred education format to support middle school girls to fill their knowledge gaps around AI in a shorter workshop form. This is an important new contribution for educators as it provides an alternative to existing programmes that are more than three hours long, or are run as an intensive workshop session. The workshops were specifically targeted at middle school girls and assumed that participants had no prior computing or AI-related knowledge. They were focussed on “critical and creative thinking about AI systems and ethics, and supported learners in thinking about training data” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). The workshops were also designed around an asset-based approach (rather than a deficit-based approach), and drew on girls’ prior “knowledge and interests as a base for further learning and engagement” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). This is important because it has been shown to be a successful way to “support girls of diverse backgrounds in learning computing” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). The researchers considered girls’ understandings and perceptions before, during and after the workshop through observations of the workshop session, surveys and interviews with participants. The workshop was run as a standalone module offered within an all-girls computing camp. Participants for the project were recruited via BoltGirls (a robotics-focused organisation in the east coast of the US) and AmazingGirls (a general girls organisation in the southwest of the US). The workshop ran for approximately 90 minutes, which included educational content and interactive activities. Workshop content was focussed on the concepts of bias, algorithms, and definitions of AI (including training data, power, and how AI can identify or misidentify content). During the interactive sections of the workshop, this was extended to consider how AI could be used to solve challenges in the girls’ own communities and a problem affecting the world more generally. This focussed on how AI could help solve the problem, but also risks of harm and how this could be mitigated. While the workshop was interactive, there was “less use of interactive tools” and a greater focus on “group discussions and ideation… as a means to understand opinions, perceptions, and knowledge gaps” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 813). Many girls who participated were able to describe AI without technical details prior to completing the workshop. There was an improvement in technical awareness following participation, and a “more complex understanding of AI” compared to the pre-workshops surveys (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 810). The girls also showed an increase in ability to talk about AI, with a much more nuanced approach to intelligence and AI, and comparisons between artificial and human intelligence. This included the recognition of different types of knowledge and intelligence, understanding the role of “informational knowledge and facts”, and being able to recognise limitations in the capabilities of AI technology (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 810). The workshops discussed algorithmic bias, and girls were able to identify bias in the context of AI providing misinformation. This included concepts such as racism, and the ability to critically analyse content to discuss implications for society. Girls raised concerns about how AI uses data, especially in relation to privacy, although they did not always specifically link this to AI, and instead focussed on the risk of hacking when discussing chatbots and digital assistants. While some participants were able to identify t
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Is it a Matter of Skills? High School Choices and the Gender Gap in STEMDalit Contini, Maria Laura Di Tommaso, Anna Maccagnan and Silvia Mendolia (2025) 2025This article investigates the extent to which gender differences in academic skills contribute to the gender gap in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) high school tracks in Italy. Focusing on the critical educational transition at age 14, when Italian students select among various secondary school types, the study examines whether disparities in mathematics and language skills—where boys typically outperform in math and girls in language—account for the underrepresentation of girls in STEM-oriented schools. The findings reveal that while academic skills do influence school choice, they only partially explain the gender gap in STEM enrollment, particularly among students from higher socio-economic backgrounds. For students from less educated families, skill differences have minimal explanatory power regarding the gender disparity in STEM choices. The research suggests that factors beyond measurable academic abilities, such as societal norms, stereotypes, and possibly differences in self-confidence or interest, significantly influence the gendered patterns in educational pathways. The study emphasizes that simply addressing skill gaps may not suffice to close the gender divide in STEM fields. Instead, comprehensive strategies that also tackle cultural and psychological barriers are necessary to encourage more equitable participation in STEM education and, by extension, in related career fields. Key Finding: "Teacher grades and test scores strongly influence choices, but the impact of ability differs by gender. Girls are less likely to opt for STEM high schools unless they excel in mathematics or have a strong comparative advantage in the subject. Conversely, boys often choose STEM pathways regardless of weak math performance and continue to do so even when they excel in Italian. Consistent with prior research, our findings suggest that girls require stronger evidence of their mathematical ability than boys to pursue STEM studies."