Items

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  Fostering Engagement in a Year 10 Girls’ Biology Classroom through Development of a Collaborative Culture

  Claire Saxon (2024) 2024

  Whilst girls demonstrate a propensity for social learning, classroom collaboration does not always lead to positive outcomes. Working together can lead to dissatisfaction, a reduction in engagement and a reliance on formulaic presentations rather than embracing a love of learning in a Year 10 Biology classroom. Girls at my school have been observed to collaborate effectively in Drama or Physical Education lessons but unable to transfer this skill to Biology. The aim of this action research project was to enable girls to change the perception of success in Biology and gather evidence of any change. This was the inspiration for an examination of re-addressing the balance in a more teacher-led classroom by adapting Ritchhart and Church’s (2020) routines in The power of making thinking visible. Girls in a Year 10 Biology class at Wycombe High School were participants in a study where deliberate routines were planned and delivered in a sequence of Biology lessons to engage students in learning and working together to achieve a common goal. Data were collected as part of a mixed methods approach. Data analysis suggested an increase in feelings of belonging and inclusion. Themes of academic trust, and the ability of students to use and organically apply the skills they learned during the collaborative learning activities were identified. Initial evidence also suggests that anxiety decreased as students were able to build critical relationships and trust with their peers whilst exploring more abstract ideas. The findings also indicate that girls were more likely to participate in robust learning conversations after the action. The intended outcomes served to challenge the apparent predominant pedagogy in different contexts which had been observed in a high-achieving, single-sex girls’ school and to foster a collaborative culture in areas where this is not usually expected. To develop this study further, there is a need to explore the relationship between collaboration, academic trust, and metacognition.
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  Fostering Grade 9 Girls’ Sense of Belonging Through the Use of Collaborative Lab Practicums as Authentic Assessments in Science

  Aruna Chavali (2024) 2024

  In 2023, the gender gap in STEM remains significant, with women making up only 28% of the STEM workforce (UNESCO, 2023). Research suggests that fostering a sense of belonging in secondary Science classes is an effective strategy for increasing and sustaining the participation of girls in the STEM pipeline (Hansen,2023). The three guiding principles for a student to have a sense of academic belonging are interpersonal relationships, disciple identity, and a growth mindset (CELT Teaching Briefs). This action research project investigated how collaborative lab practicums, as authentic assessments, cultivated discipline identity, and promoted a growth mindset, to foster a sense of belonging for girls in a Grade 9 Physics classroom. The research, conducted at The Spence School, an all-girls K-12 institution, employed a mixed-methods approach, combining Likert-scale surveys, field observations, video recordings, and interviews. Twenty-nine Grade 9 students participated in this study. Findings indicate that collaborative lab practicums deepened students' understanding, and promoted collaborative learning. Students valued the hands-on, real-world application of theoretical knowledge, which facilitates a deeper connection to science. Additionally, the collaborative nature of the assessments encouraged teamwork and enhanced communication skills. The majority of students exhibited a growth mindset, emphasizing the importance of redoing and revising calculations as part of the learning process. While challenges, such as the fast-paced nature of practicums, were noted, overall, students expressed a preference for this collaborative, authentic learning approach. This study contributes valuable insights into fostering a positive sense of belonging in the Science classroom which could ultimately increase the participation of girls in the STEM pipeline.
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  Fostering Resilience Through Quality Feedback in One-on-One Mentoring

  Núria Tapias Nadales (2020) 2020

  La Vall is a girls’ school located in Bellaterra (near Barcelona) with approximately 1,500 students between 1 and 18 years old, and belonging to Institució Familiar d'Educació , an educational institution with 13 schools in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands. The school’s main objective is to offer a personalized education model, based on the five dimensions of the person (physical, affective, social, rational, transcendental) that are described in the Integral Human Development theory. This study aimed to explore through surveys, interviews, and self-reflection how feedback in one-on-one mentoring is beneficial to secondary female students’ (13-16 years old) personal and academic progress, considering the five dimensions of the person mentioned above, and how appropriate feedback may enhance self-confidence and growth, and thus resilience. The outcomes of this action research suggest mentoring is an effective tool in resilience development when there is a trusting relationship between student and mentor, and when goals and action plans are student-initiated. Adequate training and time allocation seem necessary tools to ensure effective mentoring that promotes the development of protective factors that result in resilience and balanced growth.
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  From Self-Doubt to Self-Driven: The Impact of Learning Toolkits on Girl’s Agency in Year 5 Math Students

  Melissa Apthorpe 2025
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  Fundraising and Alumnae Relations in Australasian Girls’ Schools

  AskRight 2023

  This is the fourth survey by fundraising consultants, AskRight, on the important areas of philanthropy, fundraising and community relations in girls’ schools. The survey was completed by girls’ schools in Australia and New Zealand in 2023 based on their school’s 2022 activities.
• Gender atypical subject selection

  (2024) 2024

  In Dame Athene Donald's inaugural address as President of the British Science Association in 2015 she stated that " the problems of how we introduce gender stereotyping for our children start incredibly early ". She asks, if girls "have never had the opportunity to take things to pieces and build them up again; if they have always just played with dolls .... in a stereotypically female situation such as worrying about hair style or making tea, then how can they imagine themselves as engineers or chemists?" Dame Donald, Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge University, says that she is "astonished by how many people tell me a girl they know has been told that maths isn't for them, or that girls are no good at maths or even that they do maths like a boy". She believes that even though girls' exam results in maths and physics are as good if not better than boys, these negative messages "sink in subliminally" and girls are discouraged from pursuing maths and science as careers. Professor Donald's comments are backed up by recent research in this area. • Justman and Méndez (2018, abstract) examined data for Victorian students, finding that there is gendered streaming of STEM subjects in secondary schools, with boys more likely to take physics, information technology and advanced mathematics and girls more likely to take life sciences like biology, but that there is “significantly less gender streaming in STEM subjects among female students in all-girls schools than in co-educational schools” . Girls in Australian single-sex schools are more likely than girls in co-educational schools to take physics, advanced maths and chemistry (p. 290). • A 2018 German study has found that single-sex programs in computer science and mechanical engineering held since 2001 have led to a decrease in the number of female students dropping out of STEM disciplines at German universities. As a result, these programs have helped lead to an increase in the number of females in traditionally male-dominated STEM fields (Busolt, Ludewig & Schmidt, 2018, p. 251). • A 2017 Taiwanese study has found that single-sex schools are advantageous for women’s pursuit of careers in the technology fields . Twenty of the 28 research participants were from single-sex schools. In single-sex schools, participants reported less gender stereotyping and discrimination which enabled them the freedom to choose subjects that were not stereotypically for women. Single-sex schools were reported to provide girls with female role models who further encouraged their involvement in technology. Many participants reported feeling encouraged or inspired by their female teachers. This led the author to suggest that gender discrimination and stereotyping can threatens girls’ potentiality in technology (Wang, 2017, pp. 156-157). • A 2015 study by Kester Lee and Judy Anderson from the University of Sydney found that girls in single-sex schools have the most positive attitudes to maths and girls in co-educational schools have the least positive attitudes (p. 357). In fact, girls in single-sex schools were the most positive of all students, followed by boys in single-sex schools, then co-educational boys and finally co-educational girls (p. 361). Lee and Anderson concluded that, for girls, “single-sex settings resulted in much more favourable attitudes towards mathematics than those in coeducational settings” (p. 363). • Similarly, a 2016 report by Dr Chris Ryan of the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research confirms that, by Year 8, girls in single-sex schools are more likely to enjoy and be confident in maths than girls in co-educational schools. Ryan concluded that "boys tend to favour mathematics in terms of their confidence and how much they value the subject, while girls' attitudes to science are relatively stronger". However: "The exception to this statement is that girls in single-sex schools have stronger attitudes towards mathematics than science compared with boys, unlike in co-educational schools" (p. 23). • Gandara and Silva (2015, pp. 7, 11) found that despite equal numbers of female and male high school students in Chile sitting the biology, chemistry and physics pre-admission tests for entry into science-based university degrees, and despite female students achieving a higher Grade Point Average (GPA) at high school than male students, on average males outperformed female students in the three science admission tests, even after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES) and school type. They also found that girls attending single-sex schools in Chile were more likely to sit the chemistry and physics tests than girls from co-ed schools (pp. 7-8) and that they achieved higher scores that their co-ed counterparts on all three tests (biology, chemistry and physics) (p. 11). • A 2015 report by the Institute of Physics (UK) found that co-ed schools need to do more to tackle sexist banter and attitudes that discourage
• Gender bias in Australia’s senior science curriculum

  Ross et al. (2023) 2023

  Australian researchers have considered the challenge of engaging girls in STEM by analysing the role of gender bias in four senior secondary Australian science courses. The under-representation of girls and women in STEM is a well-recognised issue. Girls’ school educators regularly find themselves on the frontline of this issue as they implement initiatives and opportunities to combat the negative effect of gender interest stereotypes and a lack of positive female role models (Alliance of Girls Schools Australasia [AGSA], 2022a; 2022b; 2022c; Australian Government Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2022). The researchers who developed this paper have discussed some possible interventions to reduce gender bias in Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Science and Physics classes and improve engagement rates for girls. This provides useful strategies that can be considered when delivering STEM content in girls’ schools. The authors assessed the latest curriculum offered for senior secondary science courses across Australia. Only courses that were “common across all curricula and [were] part of the Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR)” were included (Ross et al., 2023, p. 4). Ross et al. (2023) considered the representation of women both through mentions of scientist names and mentions of scientific concepts (and how these were linked to gender). The project also considered the presence of a Eurocentric focus in the courses, although this was considered separately to the presence of gender bias. The initial outcomes of this research were interesting, if not unsurprising given the gender bias present more broadly in STEM. In the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia curricula there were no female scientists mentioned (Ross et al., 2023, p. 7). Only 1.4 percent of mentions in the Queensland curriculum were female scientists, and 1.5 percent in the South Australia/Northern Territory courses (these were considered in combination as both use the same curriculum content) (Ross et al., 2023, p. 7). A national trend across all curricula was clear that in the majority of cases, students were exposed to scientists in these courses “via relevant discovering being named after the scientist who discovered them” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). This is problematic given that these naming conventions historically excluded women, and female achievements were regularly miscredited to men (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). This has created a narrative of a “lone male genius” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). The researchers have suggested that this can reduce girls’ ability to perceive where they may fit in scientific fields and can decrease their performance in the classroom (Ross et al., 2023, p. 13). The concept of the “lone male genius” is highly problematic. There have been attempts to improve this approach in these courses by encouraging students to “investigate the ‘multiple individuals’ who contributed to a specific scientific discovery” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 14). While this can inadvertently minimise the work of women in STEM, it nonetheless provides educators with an opportunity to include a focus on significant female achievements in the field. It can also encourage a “student-driven approach to investigating the contributing scientists” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 14). Importantly, the authors note that while some Australian states are making an effort to shift away from this narrative, New South Wales “is the only state that actively reinforces this ‘lone male genius’ narrative” (Ross et al., 2023, p. 14). This holds significant implications for girls well beyond a presence of female scientists in the curricula of senior science courses. The researchers’ consideration of Eurocentrism within the curricula also highlighted further implications for girls who do not identify with Anglo-Australian backgrounds. The absence of scientists from culturally and linguistically diverse communities and female scientists in these courses “poses a significant hindrance” to girls including those with diverse backgrounds (Ross et al., 2023, p. 15). It can also inhibit their ability to develop a relatability towards positive role models. The researchers who developed this review of senior science courses have discussed a range of strategies. This includes the need to ensure significant female figures are actively integrated into the curricula for these courses. Ross et al. (2023) do note that including the names of female scientists alone is not a complete solution, as this would be a tokenistic measure. It would not address the true gender bias present in the curricula for these courses. The authors also believe that the barriers faced by female scientists should be studied so that girls can be fully aware of the significance of their achievements. Their research suggests that “without the historical and contextual backgrounds of women in STEM, it runs the risk of [once again] becoming
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  Gender differences in early childhood mathematics: boys’ and girls’ responses to changing pattern task difficulty

  Iris Schreiber (2025) 2025

  The study by Iris Schreiber (2025) investigates gender differences in how kindergarten children solve repeating pattern tasks, particularly when task difficulty increases through the inclusion of surplus shapes and colors. Conducted with 206 Israeli children aged 4–6, the research found no gender differences when only necessary items were provided—both boys and girls performed equally well. However, when surplus items were added, performance declined overall, with girls outperforming boys. Girls were more likely to solve the tasks correctly or declare the task unsolvable, while boys more often produced random or alternate repeating patterns. These findings suggest that girls may be more adept at filtering out irrelevant information or more cautious in uncertain situations, possibly due to lower self-confidence in math tasks. Conversely, boys appeared more easily distracted by extraneous elements and were more prone to guessing. The study emphasizes the importance of teaching strategies that foster pattern recognition and generalization, rather than procedural repetition, and advocates for differentiated instructional approaches that support both genders in early math learning.
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  Gender Essentialism Leads to Biased Learning Opportunities That Shape Women’s Career Interests

  Katherine R. Christensen, Andrei Cimpian, Sapna Cheryan (2025) 2025

  This study examines how beliefs about innate gender differences—known as gender essentialism—can unintentionally shape women’s career interests by influencing the learning opportunities they receive. Across three experiments, the researchers found that when people assume gender differences are biological, they are more likely to assign women and men stereotypical tasks (e.g., women to empathizing roles, men to systemizing roles). Over time, these biased experiences reinforce traditional gendered career interests, even when the original intentions were neutral. The findings highlight how subtle beliefs about gender can limit agency and opportunity, and suggest that fostering a more contextual understanding of gender differences is key to supporting equitable career pathways for all students. Reference Christensen, K. R., Cimpian, A., & Cheryan, S. (2025). Gender essentialism leads to biased learning opportunities that shape women’s career interests. Psychological Science , 36(7), 1195–1209. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976251353753
• Gender norms and traditional cultural understandings: Gender in the early childhood classroom

  Gelir (2022) 2022

  The question of gender within the early childhood education space is one of topical importance for girls’ schools in Australia (Chapman, 2022). Australia also has an increasingly and rapidly growing body of ethnically diverse families and students, including ethnic minorities, voluntary migrants and refugees (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021; Australian Human Right Commission; 2014). As the author of the article notes, this research raises a number of considerations surrounding traditional gender norms, ethnic minorities and language. While the case study may have been based in a minority community in Turkey that has been subject to conflict, it does reveal the need for ongoing sensitivity to students’ ethnic backgrounds and cultural beliefs. This is particularly so in situations where ethnicity, language or other cultural beliefs do not receive formal recognition, and further highlights the ongoing impact this can have on children and families even after many years of resettlement in Australia (Stroja, 2022). The article by Iksender Gelir from the Preschool Education Department at Siirt University, Turkey, considers how Kurdish preschool children construct gender roles by drawing on household and community knowledge. Gelir’s main finding is that “children position their gender roles according to the values and expectations of their minority community” (2022, p. 302). The author identifies the development of gender roles as social constructs, noting that these gender constructs are performative, not biological. Ultimately, Gelir (2022, p. 303) highlighted the recognition that “preschool teachers need to be aware of young children[‘s] gender constructions and to challenge children[‘s] traditional gender roles by expanding definition[s] of gender roles”. The article was based on “participant observations [of two children], audio and video recordings of interactions between the teacher and children in the nursery” (Gelir, 2022, p. 302). Both children were five years of age, and experienced different languages and cultures at home compared to the preschool environment Gelir (2022). The author has based this analysis on Vygotsky’s earlier research that suggested language and the mastering of language affects children’s development of thought and intellectual growth within the context of social context and its impacts on cognition development (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986). This included the assumption that learning is both intrapersonal (i.e. cognitive) and interpersonal (i.e. social). The research for this article was conducted in Turkey, where community environments include ethnic and religious minorities. Participants in the study live in a Kurdish community located in east Turkey, and speak the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish. The preschool was also located in the Kurdish community. This community was typically characterised by mothers undertaking housework, with fathers fulfilling “head of family” roles, and undertaking seasonal worker tasks in various Turkish cities. The region that was the focus of the study also has a higher illiteracy rate than other parts of the city. Preschool is the “first formal level of education” in Turkey, but at the time of writing is not compulsory. Children can be aged between three and five to attend preschool, which has its own dedicated curriculum. The language within preschools is Turkish, as Kurmanji is not an officially recognised language. The teacher of the preschool in the case study identified as Kurdish, and could speak (but not write) Kurmanji. There exists a perception that children of identified minority groups have a “lack of knowledge”, however, children within this demographic can indeed possess important knowledge that can facilitate learning (Gelir, 2022, p. 303). In fact, their home environments can be rich in terms of knowledge. This is important because children can transfer aspects of the home to the classroom, and the classroom to the home. This means educators need to consider the experiences of children outside of the school environment as an inherent part of the learning process. In particular, this includes a consideration of what this can contribute to the child’s experience in the classroom environment, and how their “household” knowledge is reflected within the classroom (Gelir, 2022, p. 303). The author particularly noted in the article that children can draw on their home environment to construct gender roles, but can also draw on language as part of this process. This reflects the understanding that cultural resources and household environments can “contribute to traditional gender constructions” (Gelir, 2022, p. 303). It is an “inclusive pedagogical approach” to allow students to draw on their pre-existing knowledge in learning environments, however, this simultaneously highlights the need for teachers to be aware that children’s prior experience can influence their understanding of gender constructs. In particular, Gelir (2022) observed that t
• Girls prefer single-sex PE classes & sporting activities

  (2024) 2024

  Researchers have found that mixed-sex sporting activities at school reinforce existing gender stereotypes that boys are 'better' at sport, leading to girls being discouraged from taking part. In addition, especially during adolescence when girls are highly conscious of body image and weight, they are reluctant to wear physical education (PE) uniforms or take part in PE classes and sporting activities with boys. Unsurprisingly, multiple studies find that girls prefer female-only PE classes, sports, fitness activities and outdoor education. • Mission Australia's large-scale annual survey of young people aged 15-19 revealed that students at girls’ schools obtained higher scores than the female average in the key area of physical and mental health, even during the pandemic year of 2020. More girls attending single-sex schools in 2020 reported participating in sport over the past year than the average female (75% vs 68.6%) (Mission Australia, 2020). • A study of the gendered nature of mixed-sex sailing programs for school students aged 14-18 in France and the United States concluded that “young men were viewed as being more legitimate participants and regularly took up the role of lead skipper — young women were considered secondary participants and were typically positioned as crew members” (Schmitt, Atencio & Sempé, 2020, pp. 1-2). Boys taking part in the study believed that girls were “less capable sailors” and “tried to intimidate the girls during races” (p. 9). This is consistent with previous studies which found that school sport “privileges males and often devalues female participants ” (p. 2). • A 2020 Scottish study has found that girls spend significantly more time undertaking moderate to vigorous physical activity in single-gender PE lessons. In addition, most girls enjoy and prefer single-gender Physical Education (PE) lessons for games such as basketball. The study authors suggest that segregating PE classes for game-based activities could lead to greater health benefits for girls through a higher level of physical activity (Wallace, Buchan & Sculthorpe, 2020, pp. 231). • A 2019 American study has found that PE lessons in co-educational schools “reinforce more sedentary behaviour in girls due to a more male-dominated, traditional, team-sport oriented curriculum that lacks a wide variety of choices” (p. 110). Timken, McNamee and Coste write that international research has demonstrated that co-ed physical activity and PE lessons “have been places rife with dominance, harassment, and intimidation of girls, leading girls to disengage and/or prefer different circumstances” (p. 111). Girls may prefer dance and fitness activities to traditional sports activities because they do not require a team, are non-competitive, can occur any time, and may require less coordination than team sports (p. 110). In addition, multiple studies have found that girls prefer single-gender rather than mixed gender PE classes, with two studies demonstrating that girls who participate in single-gender teams show increased competence, possibly because they perceived less competition and felt more confident about their ability level compared with the other girls (p. 111). • A UK study found that the majority of girls support separating girls and boys for sports activities . There was also stakeholder support for girls’ sports activities to be run by female coordinators who could act as role models (Morgan, Van Godwin, Darwent & Fildes, 2019, pp. 1, 4, 7). The authors’ recommendations include that co-ed schools should introduce female-only physical activity sessions that take place after school and that female role models should be used as facilitators of these activities (pp. 9-12). • Citing a 2014 study, Crystal Vargos writes that co-ed classes have been found to have a “negative effect” on girls’ participation levels in PE for multiple reasons including gender stereotypes, the teacher, the class environment, and the competitive design of PE classes. In addition, “Feelings of embarrassment, lack of confidence and self-efficacy, body image concerns, disinterest in particular activities, and dominance of males in PE” are reasons why females may dislike participating in co-ed PE classes (Vargos, 2017, pp. 1-2, citing Murphy, Diongi & Litchfield, 2014, n.p.). • A 2014 meta-analysis of 22 studies found that the largest increases in sports participation occurred in studies where interventions were based on single-sex activities . In particular, interventions that targeted girls, rather than girls and boys together, had a “higher effect size”. The study authors noted that this effect was not just present in adolescent girls who may be experiencing body image concerns, but also in younger girls. They concluded that “ongoing physical education and other structured physical activity contexts might require greater use of single sex provision” (Biddle, Braithwaite & Pearson, 2014, p. 129). • An American study examining co-
• Girls scared away from science by sexist banter at co-ed schools

  IOP 2015

  A new report by Britain's Institute of Physics has found that co-educational schools need to do more to tackle sexist banter and attitudes that discourage girls from pursuing careers in science. While the Opening Doors report found that all schools had policies to counter racist, sexist and homophobic language, sexist language was often dismissed as "harmless banter" though "many of the students, particularly girls, did not see it as such" and that "in extreme cases, it verged on bullying". Some of the many important findings of the Opening Doors report include that: Many of the schools were "inadvertently reinforcing the notion that certain subjects were harder than others" and that girls "lack ability" and "innate talent" in certain subjects, and this was "particularly true for girls contemplating mathematics and the physical sciences". Timetabling constraints in many schools reinforced gender stereotypes through offering subjects in blocks that send "a strong message about the types of courses that are taken by boys and girls". "Some schools, mindful of bad behaviour from boys, had policies of alternate boy-girl seating, effectively using the girls as buffers to keep the boys apart. In general the girls noticed and resented this policy." While girls had access to the full range of sporting activities at some schools, in other schools "girls resented being prevented from taking certain sports considered unsuitable for them". In 2012, the Institute of Physics published the It's Different for Girls report which found that 49% of all government co-ed schools did not have a single female student taking A-level physics and that girls attending independent single-sex schools were four times more likely to take A-level physics than girls in government co-ed schools. In fact, 7.2% of girls in single-sex independent schools took A-level physics in 2011 compared with 4.9% of girls in co-ed independent schools, 4.3% of girls in single-sex government schools and 1.8% of girls in co-ed government schools. In 2013 the Institute followed this report with its Closing Doors report examining existing gender imbalances in six A-level subjects which result in girls being more likely to take English, biology and psychology, and boys being more likely to take mathematics, physics and economics. The report found that 81% of government co-educational schools were either "maintaining or exacerbating the already poor gender bias of progression into these subjects". One of the main findings of the report, however, was that "single-sex schools are significantly better than co-educational schools at countering gender imbalances in progression to these six subjects". References Institute of Physics. (2013). Closing doors: Exploring gender and subject choice in schools . Retrieved from: https://www.iop.org/education/teacher/support/girls_physics/closing-doors/page_62076.html Institute of Physics. (2015). Opening doors: A guide to good practice in countering gender stereotyping in schools . Retrieved from: https://www.iop.org/education/teacher/support/girls_physics/reports-and-research/opening-doors/page_66438.html
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  History Belongs to Us: Year 9 Girls Use Historical Significance to Craft Their Curriculum

  Holly Webb 2025

  This action research study investigated the impact of applying the skill of historical significance to meaningfully involve girls in the creation of their Year 9 history curriculum. A class of 25 girls was given explicit instruction on evaluating historical significance, and the girls were provided with multiple opportunities to evaluate the significance of the historical topics they were currently studying. The project culminated with students producing independently researched proposals for new topics they believed warranted inclusion in the school's Year 9 history curriculum, and also with the History department working with the students to implement some of these changes. Data collection techniques included questionnaires, focus groups, student work samples, and lesson observations. Thematic analysis was used to interpret the data; findings revealed that involvement in the curriculum design process and application of historical significance enhanced student agency and developed girls’ historical skills. Developing the skill of historical significance also enabled girls to distinguish between the agency of a historian and personal preferences, whilst also highlighting that comprehensive historical knowledge is crucial for students to effectively evaluate significance and exercise agency. The findings from this study are valuable for educators wanting to critically reflect on what may be considered canon in their subject or those hoping to involve students in meaningful curricular change.
• Increasing middle school girls’ critical engagement with AI through lightweight workshops

  Solyst, J., Axon, A., Stewart, A. B., Eslami, M., & Ogan, A. (2023) 2023

  With the increasing presence of AI in society it is becoming vital that students understand how to use this technology safely and are aware of its potential benefits, uses, bias, and impact on ethics and privacy. AI is prevalent in everyday life, and girls are highly likely to be exposed to AI regardless of which post-school path they pursue. Researchers from Carnegie Mellon University in the USA have undertaken a project to gain a better understanding of middle school girls’ “perceptions and knowledge gaps about AI” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). By developing a lightweight educational workshop (a workshop less than three hours long), the authors explored girls’ perceptions and approaches to AI with the aim of helping them avoid misinformation, provide them with useful learning materials and “lend insight into a more just future” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). Currently, learning opportunities that are designed “to address children’s knowledge gaps in AI literacy” largely focus on the technical aspects of the technology. This excludes many of the ethical questions associated with AI (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). The researchers who developed this paper were also concerned about the limited understanding “of how girls perceive and learn about AI”, with a risk that this may “potentially [compound] existing inequities in AI representation” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). This project explored a learner-centred education format to support middle school girls to fill their knowledge gaps around AI in a shorter workshop form. This is an important new contribution for educators as it provides an alternative to existing programmes that are more than three hours long, or are run as an intensive workshop session. The workshops were specifically targeted at middle school girls and assumed that participants had no prior computing or AI-related knowledge. They were focussed on “critical and creative thinking about AI systems and ethics, and supported learners in thinking about training data” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). The workshops were also designed around an asset-based approach (rather than a deficit-based approach), and drew on girls’ prior “knowledge and interests as a base for further learning and engagement” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). This is important because it has been shown to be a successful way to “support girls of diverse backgrounds in learning computing” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 807). The researchers considered girls’ understandings and perceptions before, during and after the workshop through observations of the workshop session, surveys and interviews with participants. The workshop was run as a standalone module offered within an all-girls computing camp. Participants for the project were recruited via BoltGirls (a robotics-focused organisation in the east coast of the US) and AmazingGirls (a general girls organisation in the southwest of the US). The workshop ran for approximately 90 minutes, which included educational content and interactive activities. Workshop content was focussed on the concepts of bias, algorithms, and definitions of AI (including training data, power, and how AI can identify or misidentify content). During the interactive sections of the workshop, this was extended to consider how AI could be used to solve challenges in the girls’ own communities and a problem affecting the world more generally. This focussed on how AI could help solve the problem, but also risks of harm and how this could be mitigated. While the workshop was interactive, there was “less use of interactive tools” and a greater focus on “group discussions and ideation… as a means to understand opinions, perceptions, and knowledge gaps” (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 813). Many girls who participated were able to describe AI without technical details prior to completing the workshop. There was an improvement in technical awareness following participation, and a “more complex understanding of AI” compared to the pre-workshops surveys (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 810). The girls also showed an increase in ability to talk about AI, with a much more nuanced approach to intelligence and AI, and comparisons between artificial and human intelligence. This included the recognition of different types of knowledge and intelligence, understanding the role of “informational knowledge and facts”, and being able to recognise limitations in the capabilities of AI technology (Solyst et al., 2023, p. 810). The workshops discussed algorithmic bias, and girls were able to identify bias in the context of AI providing misinformation. This included concepts such as racism, and the ability to critically analyse content to discuss implications for society. Girls raised concerns about how AI uses data, especially in relation to privacy, although they did not always specifically link this to AI, and instead focussed on the risk of hacking when discussing chatbots and digital assistants. While some participants were able to identify t
• Is it a Matter of Skills? High School Choices and the Gender Gap in STEM

  Dalit Contini, Maria Laura Di Tommaso, Anna Maccagnan and Silvia Mendolia (2025) 2025

  This article investigates the extent to which gender differences in academic skills contribute to the gender gap in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) high school tracks in Italy. Focusing on the critical educational transition at age 14, when Italian students select among various secondary school types, the study examines whether disparities in mathematics and language skills—where boys typically outperform in math and girls in language—account for the underrepresentation of girls in STEM-oriented schools. The findings reveal that while academic skills do influence school choice, they only partially explain the gender gap in STEM enrollment, particularly among students from higher socio-economic backgrounds. For students from less educated families, skill differences have minimal explanatory power regarding the gender disparity in STEM choices. The research suggests that factors beyond measurable academic abilities, such as societal norms, stereotypes, and possibly differences in self-confidence or interest, significantly influence the gendered patterns in educational pathways. The study emphasizes that simply addressing skill gaps may not suffice to close the gender divide in STEM fields. Instead, comprehensive strategies that also tackle cultural and psychological barriers are necessary to encourage more equitable participation in STEM education and, by extension, in related career fields. Key Finding: "Teacher grades and test scores strongly influence choices, but the impact of ability differs by gender. Girls are less likely to opt for STEM high schools unless they excel in mathematics or have a strong comparative advantage in the subject. Conversely, boys often choose STEM pathways regardless of weak math performance and continue to do so even when they excel in Italian. Consistent with prior research, our findings suggest that girls require stronger evidence of their mathematical ability than boys to pursue STEM studies."
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  Leading the Future: How Girls’ Schools Can Respond to the OECD’s Gender Equality Findings

  ICGS 2026

  In September 2025, the OECD published its Gender Equality in a Changing World report, a comprehensive assessment of gender equality across EU and OECD countries. The report examines how women, men, girls and boys are faring across seven policy areas: education and skills, paid and unpaid work, leadership and representation, health, gender-based violence, the green transition, and the digital transformation.
• Parental attitudes and beliefs play critical role in girls’ learning choices

  Jones & Hamer (2022) 2022

  Recent research by UK-based researchers Karen Jones and Jessica Hamer have explored the impact of parent and carer’s attitudes and beliefs on children’s participation in physics classes in high school. Despite the recognition that girls are good at physics, female students are not studying physics or going into physics-related careers. GCSE outcomes from 2016 show girls achieved at equal levels as boys in physics, yet only 1.9 percent of girls study physics at A-level in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. By comparison, 6.5 percent of boys go on to study physics at this level. This reinforces concerns that girls don’t believe they can be engineers or scientists. If more girls pursued the study of physics this would address social inequality in the UK, while also addressing the current skills gap. Such gender imbalances are also present in other locations such as Australia (Department of Industry, Innovation and Science, 2019). Many existing research studies show there is a significant gender gap in physics, however, Jones & Hamer’s 2022 article considers the attitudes and beliefs of parents of children in year nine. This included a survey which was run as part of initiatives designed to investigate and improve gender balances. While 60 secondary girls’ schools and state schools were specifically invited to participate in the study, the authors caution that the sample is not representative of all schools. This is due to the sample bias ‘towards higher achievement and higher socio-economic backgrounds’ (Jones & Hamer, 2022, p. 211). It has been well-established that many factors can impact girls’ participation in physics classes and careers. A 2006 study found that ‘participation was found to be related to career aspiration, interest and enjoyment in physics, views of the relevance of physics, the impact of teachers, being in a single-sex school, achievement and self-concept, perceptions of the difficulty of physics and assessment processes’ (Jones & Hamer, 2022, p. 202; Murphy & Whitelegg, 2006). Other key influences include teachers’ perceptions and encouragement, socio-economic status and ethnic backgrounds (although this can lead to the development of troubling racial and economic stereotypes applied at a general level), varied interest in physics with age, and mis-alignment of self-identity with perceptions of roles in physics. Another key influencing factor the authors particularly note are the links between parent and child ‘engagement, aspirations and attainment in science’ (Jones & Hamer, 2022, p. 204). This can also include the gendered attitudes of parents; however, more research is required in this area. While Jones and Hamer (2022, p. 216) did not determine a causal relationship between ‘parental attitudes and student outcomes’, the authors did identify that parent beliefs that their child ‘will go on to study physics at A-level’ — or parents’ ability to view their child working in a physics-related field — has a significant potential to impact girls’ (Jones & Hamer, 2022, p. 216). Parents’ beliefs and attitudes are vitally important influences on girls. This provides an important opportunity for additional research and the potential for targeted interventions to increase the likelihood of female students choosing to study physics. Jones and Hamer (2022, p. 218) recognise the project bias and the potential impact of this on their findings. The authors note that the project sample and data is biased ‘towards schools with higher exam results and lower deprivation’ (Jones & Hamer, 2022, p. 218). While efforts were made to manage results accordingly, the influence of these parameters cannot be completely excluded. Matched samples did indicate a high potential accuracy of these results, which has nonetheless led the authors to suggest that the findings from this research can potentially be applied ‘to other settings’ (Jones & Hamer, 2022, p. 219). These findings are developed from a case study based on schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. While the data used as the basis for this case study specifically excluded independent schools, single sex boy’s schools and special schools in these locations, this article nonetheless provides a welcome reinforcement for recent research in Australia indicating that girls’ schools can provide environments where a greater proportion of girls do indeed pursue the study of physics and other STEM subjects (Forgasz & Leder, 2017; Jones & Hamer, 2022, p. 219; Maasoumi et al., 2019). It also provides a welcome opportunity for future research to consider if these same themes surrounding parent attitudes and beliefs are present in Australian girls’ schools. Until such research is realised, this provides points of consideration for educators in girls’ schools to consider the benefits of these education environments in supporting girls and young women pursue their full potential across a breadth of academic disciplines. References Department of Industry,
• Play equipment in Australian children’s homes: Can we refine interventions to support girls’ engagement with physical activity? (ICGS, 2025)

  (2025) 2025

  Duncombe, S. L., Moss, K. M., Tooth, L. R., & Mielke, G. I. (2025). Sex differences in the play equipment found in Australian children’s homes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 34 , 1283-1291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-025-03037-8 . Research has shown that the different types of play equipment present in children’s homes can be associated with children’s physical activity levels. This study by researchers at the University of Queensland, Australia, investigates differences in play equipment found in Australian homes based on the gender of the child/children. The authors identify links between gender and the type of equipment present in homes, and highlight the impact of this on children’s engagement with physical activity. They suggest that early, gender-specific physical activity interventions are needed to target gender disparity in physical activity. Given the well-documented benefits of physical activity for child and adolescent wellbeing, early and positive interventions to encourage girls’ holistic participation are essential (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1284). This research was drawn from the “Mothers and their Children’s Health Study”, which is part of the “Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health”. This included information on 5,314 children from 2,805 families, which was categorised by the number of children in the family, age, and gender makeup. This is a substantially larger study than much of the previous research published on this topic, and also considers the context of siblings in family groups. Participants were provided with a list of play equipment and asked to indicate which of the items were available to children in their homes. The list of equipment provided to participants was “balls; basketball or netball rings; bats, racquets, or golf clubs; climbing equipment or suitable trees; bicycles, tricycles, or scooters; skateboards or ripsticks; skipping ropes; swimming pools; trampolines; slides or swings; and electronic play equipment” (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1285). The researchers initially observed broad trends linking the gender composition of children in the household to the type of play equipment in the home. Families with all boys or mixed siblings had a higher prevalence of play equipment that included “skateboards/ripsticks, bats, racquets and golf clubs than those without a boy” (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1283). Families with girls or mixed siblings had a higher prevalence of play equipment in the home that included “skipping ropes, slides and swings than those without a girl” (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1283). Yet there were no differences observed in “balls, bicycles, trampoline, pools, or active electronic games in homes” (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1283). The findings were promising in relation to toys associated with active play. Previous studies have shown that toys associated with movement have typically been present in family groups with boys. Yet this study shows equal amounts of all-girl and all-boy families with toys associated with movement. This is an important finding and one that prompted the researchers to question what factors influenced this outcome (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1288). It indicates that providing girls with access to these types of toys could be beneficial to “augment their physical activity levels”, while maintaining awareness of how girls will use the toys, as this may differ to boys (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1289). These findings reinforce earlier research showing different play patterns and behaviours among girls and boys. However, it also gives a new perspective to this topic by considering the home environment and potential influence of siblings. The authors also suggest this is an opportunity to consider the role of gendered parenting and societal pressures in children’s toy preferences. This can be addressed through advocacy for “less gendered toy marketing and preschool environments”, including the promotion of gender-neutral spaces from a young age (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1288). Regardless of how much influence in children’s choice of play equipment can be attributed to child preference, societal norms or parent influence, the implications for physical activity levels are still crucial to understand in order to address disparities in physical activity. There was no difference between families with mixed sex siblings and all-boy/all-girl families and the types of play equipment/activity levels found in the home. This indicates that “a single child of one sex may influence the equipment in a home” (Duncombe et al., 2025, p. 1288). There was also no clear correlation between levels of physical activity with/without siblings. The number of differences in play equipment did increase as children aged, which is consistent with existing research. Preferences for gender neutral toys also decreased significantly as child age rose. This could be due to socialisation pressures and early social environments that encourage
• Plugging the gaps in the STEM pipeline: A reproducible, scalable model that supports middle school and undergraduate females studying

  Akin, V., Santillan, S. T., & Valentino (2024) 2024

  Developing new and innovative ways to support girls in STEM is high on the agenda of girls’ schools globally. Researchers from Duke University have developed a reproducible model that targets two key periods when girls are more likely to leave STEM studies – middle school and tertiary undergraduate studies. They do this by focussing on helping girls develop their own STEM identity. This is crucial, because stereotypes about who should study STEM have been found to have a significant impact on girls being able to see themselves in STEM careers (International Coalition of Girls’ Schools [ICGS], 2024). This research represents a unique mentoring model that can be scaled up or down and replicated in girls’ schools to help support students as they seek to follow their STEM aspirations. Despite numerous interventions that have been developed to support female STEM engagement, there still exists a significant drop in girls’ participation in STEM during middle school and the undergraduate years of tertiary study (Akin et al., 2024, p. 452). This has been linked to a “clear shift in girls’ social identity relative to mathematics during middle school”, and a further decrease in female STEM enrolments after completing secondary school (Akin et al., 2024, p. 452). In particular, self-confidence in mathematics can have a significant impact on girls’ STEM identities more broadly. An interdisciplinary group of both researchers and STEM practitioners have developed a model called Improving Girls’ Math Identity (IGMI) to address these issues at both undergraduate college level and middle school. The IGMI programme involves the recruitment and training of undergraduate women studying STEM to become mentors and workshop leaders for local middle school girls. This serves a dual purpose of providing mentoring and workshop opportunities to adolescent girls, and also the creation of a network of female STEM undergraduate students. IGMI was designed to help undergraduate women and middle school girls develop a positive mathematics or STEM identity. This was intended to improve not only their beliefs and attitudes about STEM, but also “the degree to which they see themselves as members of the corresponding community” (Akin et al., 2024, p. 453). Undergraduate students were provided with the necessary training and materials to deliver workshops and mentoring to middle school girls. The research case study included this content as part of a broader curriculum, however, it can also be offered as an extra-curricular offering. IGMI was run successfully three times during this research, in both in-person and virtual formats (due to pandemic restrictions). The IGMI goals are achieved through three key approaches to support the development of a positive STEM identity. The first is the belief that the student is capable of completing the training necessary to be a STEM professional. The second is the belief that a STEM-related career is “personally relevant and meaningful to the student’s broader life goals” (Akin et al., 2024, p. 454). Finally, this connects with the belief that STEM fields, both educationally and professionally, have the capacity to be a welcoming environment – something that is also supported through the development of healthy, positive female STEM networks during the IGMI programme. Targeting these three areas responds to research showing that developing a positive mathematics or STEM identity is crucial to supporting girls who wish to pursue study in this field. (ICGS, 2024). IGMI also focusses on enhanced mathematical skills building. This includes metacognition, problem-based learning, and spatial reasoning. Developed as a scalable model that can be replicated in girls’ schools, the IGMI intervention provides benefits for both the middle school and undergraduate participants. Both middle school girls and women in undergraduate courses who participated in IGMI showed “improved mathematical self-efficacy and confidence” (Akin et al., 2024, p. 453). This was especially apparent in the presentation of mathematical work, problem-solving skills, and improved skills when approaching new problems. Beyond these skills, however, there also exists the development of a professional support network among undergraduate women, and a positive mentorship programme for middle school girls. Undergraduate women also gained an increased understanding of barriers to female participation in STEM, which in turn led participants to feel more empowered when navigating the STEM environment in their university studies and potential employment opportunities. It also led to improved confidence and leadership skills, and an increased desire from undergraduate women to maintain ongoing involvement in supporting adolescent girls on their own STEM journeys. This model represents an important opportunity for girls’ schools to bring together adolescent girls and undergraduate women who have a shared interest and desire to study STEM, while al
• 
  Raising Her Voice: Strengthening Student Well-Being and Engagement Through Connection in Girls’ Schools (Full Report)

  2024

  In an effort to support girls’ mental health around the globe, in 2023 International Coalition of Girls’ Schools (ICGS) partnered with Challenge Success, a non-profit organization affiliated with the Stanford University Graduate School of Education, to explore the experiences of girls in ICGS member schools. As the leading advocate for girls’ schools, ICGS connects and collaborates globally with individuals, schools, and mission-aligned entities dedicated to educating and empowering girls. Challenge Success partners with school communities to elevate student voice and implement research-based, equity-centered strategies to improve student well-being, belonging, and engagement. The two educational organizations share many values, including elevating student voices and empowering students to use their agency to drive positive change. Our aim was to explore the experiences of girls in girls’ schools through gathering and sharing data collected via the Challenge Success-Stanford Survey of Student Experiences. Equally important was to highlight areas where girls are doing well such as feeling a strong sense of belonging, support, and engagement in school. The purpose of this is to provide ICGS member schools with recommendations for promising research-based, equity-centered policies and practices aimed at improving girls’ well-being, engagement, and belonging in school.
• School experiences of transgender and gender diverse students in Australia

  Jones et al. (2016) 2016

  An Australian study conducted by Jones, Smith, Ward, Dixon, Hillier and Mitchell sought to explore the schooling experiences of transgender and gender diverse students that are becoming increasingly visible across Australia’s education landscape. From their findings they propose a number of recommendations for establishing more inclusive practices within schooling environments that can better support these students (Jones, Smith, Ward, Dixon, Hillier & Mitchell, 2016, p. 156). At an international level there has been an increased awareness and acceptance of the growing possibility of students presenting diverse gender identities within schooling contexts. The existing literature on transgender and gender diverse students has largely focused on risk factors associated with belonging to this population, including the increased potential for victimisation and discrimination within the school environment. Evidence of the schooling experiences of this population is being increasingly used to inform policy protections aimed at establishing inclusive school environments that provide greater recognition and support for gender diversity. Against this backdrop, Jones et al.’s study became focused on exploring the extent to which Australian transgender and gender diverse students report feeling supported within their school environments, with particular consideration of recognition of their experiences of puberty and sexuality education, treatment by students and staff, and advantages of participating in activism (pp. 156, 157). To conduct their study, 189 transgender and gender diverse students across Australia’s various education sectors participated in an online survey answering questions related to their schooling experiences, mental health and the role of activism in their wellbeing. In depth interviews were further conducted with sixteen of the survey participants who were willing to discuss their experiences of schooling in greater detail (pp. 160, 161) The data obtained from interviews and surveys revealed that the majority of participants in the study reported a lack of inclusion in their experiences of sexuality and puberty education. Two-thirds of transgender and gender diverse students revealed that the provision of sexuality education at their school was mostly inappropriate for failing to recognise sexual and gender diversity. The findings further revealed that 55% of participants believed that their education regarding puberty was mostly inappropriate (pp. 163, 164). Transgender and gender diverse students revealed negative experiences of schooling in their accounts of the wearing and policing of school uniforms. Many participants reported that the wearing of the school uniform was a problematic experience, particularly where the uniform options provided by the school were strongly gendered. Participants predicted that improvements to the inclusion and wellbeing of gender diverse students would be benefitted by uniform options that supported greater flexibility in gender expression (pp. 164, 165). Lack of support from school personnel was reported to bear a significant weight on transgender and gender diverse students’ negative experiences of schooling. A common situation through which gender diverse students reported feeling ill-supported by school personnel was when their teachers and school administrators failed to acknowledge them by their preferred name or pronoun. This situation reportedly affected students’ ability to concentrate in class, which for many students further led to them achieving poor results or leaving school entirely. Lack of recognition of ones’ gender diversity from school personnel was also positively linked to increases in verbal and physical abuse from peers (pp. 165,166). Participants with supportive classmates were less likely to experience victimisation at school. However, 65% of the study’s participants reported experiencing verbal abuse from their peers on the basis of their gender diversity and 21% reported experiencing incidences of physical abuse. Over 90% of participants who had experienced physical abuse were reported to have contemplated suicide (pp.165, 166). Due to experiences of discrimination and victimisation, 91% of participants in the study reported being involved in activism promoting the need for improvements in society for gender diverse and transgender people. Becoming involved in activism was reported to have a positive impact on participants’ wellbeing by increasing their resilience (33%), easing their symptoms of depression (30%) and reducing their ideation towards self-harm (30%) and suicide (31%) (p. 166). The data provided by the surveys and interviews with transgender and gender diverse students illustrate the need for schools to continue to scrutinise and transform their practices so as to improve the inclusion of these students within the school environment. Based on their findings, the authors recommended that improved school climates fo
• 
  Show What You Know: How Girls’ Academic Confidence Increases with Multiple and Differentiated Ways of Sharing What They Learned

  Julie Haines (2020) 2020

  This action research project investigated the hypothesis that when elementary school girls are able to choose from a menu of differentiated assessments their academic confidence increases and their assessment stress decreases. In this study, students in grades two, three, and four in an all-girls’ independent school in the United States were given choices in the assessment process. Students used a Likert scale to rate their academic confidence in the topic of a STEAM mini-unit at the beginning and end of instruction. At the conclusion of each mini-unit, students chose their preferred method of assessment to show what they had learned—show what you know. The assessment choices were: creating a labeled drawing, building a model, taking a multiple choice test, recording a Flipgrid, taking a Kahoot quiz, or other (student’s choice). In addition, the parents of the students provided feedback and insights on the academic confidence and the learning achieved by their daughters. The study demonstrates that providing students with “voice and choice” from a variety of assessment methods may contribute to increased academic confidence and improved learning outcomes.
• Single-sex classrooms remove the confines of traditional gender binaries and allow students to embrace gender fluidity

  Schmidt (2020) 2020

  In a year-long study conducted in Single-Gender Initiative (SGI) classes in South Carolina, Sandra Schmidt (Colombia University, New York) found that single-sex classrooms do not reinforce a rigid dichotomy of male and female gender traits. Schmidt (2020, p. 1093) claims that gender distinctions are “foundational to the institutional and spatial arrangement of schools”, for example through gendered toilets and uniforms. While single-sex schools are free from those internal markers of bias, their very existence does rely on the male/female gender binary construct. Schmidt (2020) therefore acknowledges the potential for rigidity when schools design and program specifically for the single-sex environments, yet her findings indicate that even when this does occur, social fluidity within these social spaces will disrupt stereotypical gender norms. This persistent dynamism means that even when school policies, personnel, and structures attempt to reinforce gender norms, binaries and hierarchies, students can and will disrupt these societal messages through ‘play’. Schmidt (2020) suggests educators need to be aware of how students “create free space” for “gender non-conforming play”, while encouraging consideration of how educators can create the freedom for students to “play and ascertain the boundaries and possibilities of their (gender) identities” (p. 1111). Schmidt’s (2020) qualitative study saw her spend one academic year with 97 students in a newly developed SGI class in South Carolina to determine how students negotiated gender dichotomies. She drew on personal experience, observations of classes, informal discussions, and interviews with students to draw her conclusions. These classes were developed from policies that responded to psychologists’ beliefs that male and female students were subject to “innate learning differences” (Sax, 2005; Schmidt, 2020, p. 1094). Schmidt’s work responds to critics who suggest that single-sex schooling does not lead to educational benefits, reinforces sex/gender binaries, and strengthens traditional hierarchies that can marginalise female staff and students (Halpern et al., 2011; Jackson, 2010). Some have responded to such critiques by showing that young people can enact “moments of transgression in these rigid social spaces” (Schmidt, 2020, p. 1096). Others have suggested that adults are “most influential in shaping” experiences in schools that can “disrupt [the] gender reproduction of schooling” (p. 1096). Schmidt provides important new understandings of the ways young people themselves can become “part of the production of the social landscape”, while applying these findings to key examples of single-sex classrooms in South Carolina (p. 1096). The SGI classrooms involved in the study were subject to strict reinforcement of a ‘rigid gender-differentiated landscape’ (p. 1100). Learning and motivational techniques were focused around so-called ‘boy’ and ‘girl’ learning styles and identities. Schmidt (2020) observed that teachers in all-boys classes used overt and explicit competition as a behaviour management tool, such as through ‘war’ games to earn privileges and publicly posted grades. Female students experienced a distinctly different approach where girls were “given sticky notes and boxes of markers so they could use colour in their assignments”; collaboration was facilitated and encouraged, as was the celebration of classmates’ successes. Based on an assumption of gender differences in “dexterity”, “boys were given printed PowerPoint slides, while girls copied notes from the board” (Schmidt, 2020, pp. 1100-1101). Schmidt (2020) observed that students in single-sex girls’ classes challenged the gender stereotypes underpinning this single-sex environment in two particular ways: the development of family trees (during a class activity), and competition. Students were asked to develop a ‘family tree’ of their relationships in their classrooms. One set of female participants challenged heteronormative constructs, developing family trees depicting only female roles – “grandmother, mothers, aunts, cousins and sisters” (p. 1102), while males generally produced mixed sex depictions. Intersections of race, socioeconomics and academic performance influenced these representations. However, Schmidt (2020) observed that the family tree became “an important representation of the social relationships that cohered a group of girls to either collectively engage in or resist the lessons each day” (p. 1102). While this intersectionality means not all findings are directly relatable to any all-girls environment, two responses were either consistently or intermittently observed in girls: “direct and indirect resistance to teacher practices” and the desire to engage in the more dynamic activities reserved for the boys’ classes (Schmidt, 2020, p. 1104). This resistance included subversive development of their own methods of learning and play that reflected the competitive benchmark
• Social, emotional and health benefits

  2024

  In a girls’ school where there are no gender stereotypes, no appearance pressures, much lower rates of bullying, and no sexism or sexual harassment, girls are truly free to be who they want to be, both inside and outside the classroom. Studies show that girls are less self-conscious, more confident and less likely to suffer body image pressures or eating disorders in a single-sex environment. They are also far less likely to be bullied by other girls and, without boys in the school, can participate fully in all aspects of school life without worrying about being the subject of sexist or inappropriate comments and behaviour. • A 2020 analysis of PISA data from 2015 and 2018 on bullying found that, on average, 79% of girls at single-sex schools in Australia and New Zealand never or hardly ever experienced bullying, compared with 71% of girls from co-ed schools. Compared with girls from co-ed schools, students from girls' schools reported: Never or hardly ever being threatened by other students (89% vs 78%) Never or hardly ever being the subject of nasty rumours (73% vs 62%) Never or hardly ever being made fun of by other students (67% vs 57%) Girls from single-sex schools were also significantly less likely to report being hit or pushed by other students, having belongings taken or destroyed, or being left out of things on purpose (MMG, 2020). • Mission Australia's 2020 Youth Survey revealed that even during the pandemic year, students at girls’ schools obtained higher scores than the female average in the key areas of mental health and overall life satisfaction. Students attending girls’ schools were less likely to be concerned about their personal mental health than the average female (37.2% vs 43.3%). They were also less likely to be concerned about bullying (9.6% vs 15.1%) and more likely to report feeling happy or very happy with their life as a whole (61.3% vs 54.4% of all girls) (Mission Australia, 2020). • Two recent reports from the United Kingdom have found that the vast majority of girls are sexually harassed and bullied at school, and that the evidence shows that one-quarter of girls at co-ed schools have experienced unwanted physical touching of a sexual nature while at school (Ofsted, 2021; National Education Union and UK Feminista, 2017). • A 2016 British Parliament inquiry found that girls in co-ed high schools are subjected to daily sexual harassment (including 29% of girls aged 16-18 who experience unwanted sexual touching at school) and are the victims of implicit bias by teachers who steer girls away from ‘hard’ subjects like advanced maths, physics and computer science (Commons Select Committee [United Kingdom], 2016, September 13). • A 2016 Australian study, based on a survey administered at five co-educational schools in Adelaide, has confirmed previous research findings that sexual bullying behaviours are commonplace within co-ed schools but that they are often not reported because measures used to quantify bullying in schools do not specifically ask questions about sexual harassment or sexually-toned bullying (Shute, Owens & Slee, 2016; also see, Shute, 2017 ). • A 2015 report by Britain's Institute of Physics found that co-educational schools need to do more to tackle sexist banter and attitudes that discourage girls from pursuing careers in science. While the Opening Doors report found that all schools had policies to counter racist, sexist and homophobic language, sexist language was often dismissed as "harmless banter" though "many of the students, particularly girls, did not see it as such" and that "in extreme cases, it verged on bullying" (p. 13). Some of the other findings include that: "Some schools, mindful of bad behaviour from boys, had policies of alternate boy-girl seating, effectively using the girls as buffers to keep the boys apart. In general the girls noticed and resented this policy" (p. 12). While girls had access to the full range of sporting activities at some schools, in other schools "girls resented being prevented from taking certain sports considered unsuitable for them" (p. 19). • A US study found that less than 1% of female students in single-sex schools experience bullying , compared with 21% of female students in co-ed schools (Johnson & Gastic, 2014, p. 128). In addition, girls at single-sex schools are not only more likely to be gender nonconforming than girls at co-ed schools (p. 134), but also "significantly less likely to be bullied" (p. 133) for preferring 'masculine' sports (including football, baseball and basketball) over 'feminine' sports and activities (including softball, cheerleading, choir and art classes) (p. 129). In fact, say the authors, "single-sex schools emerge as a protective factor for female gender nonconforming girls" (p. 126). • A Korean study exploring whether the gender composition of the school environment affects the bullying experiences and behaviours of adolescents has found a
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  Students’ perceptions of schools’ influence on the leadership self-efficacy of adolescent girls: religious and secular post-primary schools in Israel

  Perets Shenhav , Davidovitch Nitza , Lewin Eyal (2025) 2025

  Overview This qualitative study explores how different school contexts shape adolescent girls’ confidence in their leadership abilities. Drawing on Social Cognitive Theory, the authors focus on three main pathways that influence leadership self-efficacy: mastery experiences, social modeling, and social persuasion . The research highlights how school structures, culture, and peer/teacher interactions can either limit or expand opportunities for girls to see themselves as capable leaders, with meaningful differences emerging between secular mixed-gender schools and religious all-girls schools. Key Findings Mastery Experiences: Girls in religious schools had more opportunities to practice leadership, both in school and through youth organizations. Social Modeling: Religious school students identified teachers, older peers, and guides as leadership role models; secular school students did not report strong models. Social Persuasion: Religious schools provided consistent encouragement from teachers, peers, and youth leaders, reinforcing girls’ leadership confidence. Secular school students reported little direct encouragement. Overall Impact: Religious all-girls schools fostered stronger leadership self-efficacy than secular mixed-gender schools by providing richer experiences, visible role models, and affirmational support. Implications for Girls’ Schools Structured opportunities for leadership and visible female role models are critical in developing leadership confidence among adolescent girls. Encouragement and affirmation from adults and peers can significantly influence students’ belief in their leadership capacity. The findings challenge assumptions that secular, coeducational settings are inherently more supportive of girls’ leadership development, highlighting the unique value of all-girls environments. Reference Perets, S., Davidovitch, N., & Lewin, E. (2025). "Students’ perceptions of schools’ influence on the leadership self-efficacy of adolescent girls: religious and secular post-primary schools in Israel." Frontiers in Psychology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1488270